On December 20, 1989, the United States launched Operation Just Cause, a military invasion of Panama aimed at deposing the country's de facto ruler, Manuel Antonio Noriega.
Authorized by President George H.W. Bush, the operation marked a dramatic escalation of U.S. efforts to address the growing instability in Panama and Noriega's increasingly hostile actions toward American interests.
Over the course of several weeks, U.S. forces successfully removed Noriega from power, but the operation left a complex legacy, raising questions about sovereignty, military intervention, and U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere.
Background: Noriega’s Rise and Fall from Favor
Manuel Noriega, a former military officer, had risen to prominence in Panama through his control of the Panama Defense Forces (PDF) and his close ties to the U.S. government.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Noriega served as a valuable CIA asset, providing intelligence on communist activities in Latin America and assisting in the fight against drug trafficking.
His relationship with the United States was pragmatic—Noriega was paid handsomely for his cooperation, reportedly receiving millions of dollars over the years.
However, Noriega’s reliability as an ally deteriorated as he consolidated power in Panama.
By the mid-1980s, he had become the country’s de facto leader, ruling through a combination of political manipulation and brute force.
His regime was marked by corruption, repression, and ties to the Medellín Cartel, a Colombian drug trafficking organization led by Pablo Escobar.
Evidence mounted that Noriega was facilitating the flow of cocaine into the United States, undermining the very anti-drug efforts he had once supported.
In 1988, two U.S. federal grand juries indicted Noriega on charges of drug trafficking, money laundering, and racketeering, signaling the end of his usefulness to Washington.
Tensions escalated further in 1989. Noriega annulled the results of a democratic election in May, installing a puppet government and cracking down on opposition leaders.
His forces harassed U.S. military personnel stationed in Panama (where roughly 13,000 troops protected the Panama Canal under the 1977 Panama Canal Treaty).
The breaking point came on December 16, 1989, when Panamanian soldiers killed an unarmed U.S. Marine lieutenant, wounded another American serviceman, and assaulted the man’s wife.
President Bush, who had taken office earlier that year, faced mounting pressure to act decisively.
The Decision to Invade
Operation Just Cause was the culmination of months of planning and deteriorating U.S.-Panama relations.
President Bush justified the invasion with four key objectives: safeguarding American lives, restoring democracy in Panama, protecting the Panama Canal, and bringing Noriega to justice for his crimes.
The operation involved an unprecedented deployment of U.S. military might, with approximately 27,000 troops—drawn from the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines—converging on Panama in the largest U.S. combat operation since the Vietnam War.
The invasion began in the early hours of December 20, 1989, with a combination of airstrikes, helicopter assaults, and ground operations.
U.S. forces targeted key PDF installations, including Noriega’s headquarters at the Comandancia in Panama City.
Stealth aircraft, such as the F-117 Nighthawk, were used for the first time in combat, dropping precision-guided bombs to minimize collateral damage.
American troops quickly overwhelmed the poorly equipped and demoralized PDF, which numbered around 15,000 but was no match for the U.S. military’s superior technology and training.
Noriega initially evaded capture, fleeing into hiding as U.S. forces secured Panama City and other strategic locations.
On December 24, he sought refuge in the Vatican’s diplomatic mission, the Apostolic Nunciature.
In a bizarre twist, U.S. troops surrounded the building and blasted loud rock music—reportedly including songs by Van Halen and The Clash—in an attempt to force him out.
After tense negotiations, Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was flown to Miami to face trial.
Outcomes and Consequences
Operation Just Cause achieved its immediate objectives. Noriega was removed from power, and Guillermo Endara, the winner of the annulled May 1989 election, was sworn in as Panama’s president on the day of the invasion.
The Panama Canal remained secure, and U.S. forces began withdrawing shortly after Noriega’s capture, with the operation officially ending on January 31, 1990.
Noriega was convicted in a U.S. court in 1992 and sentenced to 40 years in prison (later reduced to 30), where he remained until his extradition to France in 2010 and eventual return to Panama, where he died in 2017.
However, the invasion came at a cost.
Official U.S. figures report 23 American troops killed and 325 wounded, while Panamanian casualties remain disputed.
The U.S. military estimated 516 Panamanian deaths, including both soldiers and civilians, but independent sources, including human rights groups, suggest the toll could have been as high as 1,000 or more.
The fighting devastated parts of Panama City, particularly the impoverished El Chorrillo neighborhood near the Comandancia, where fires sparked by combat displaced thousands of residents.
Internationally, the operation drew sharp criticism.
The Organization of American States (OAS) condemned the invasion as a violation of Panama’s sovereignty, and the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution deploring the action.
Critics argued that the U.S. had overstepped its authority, using excessive force to address what was essentially a law enforcement issue.
Supporters, however, viewed it as a necessary response to a dictator who threatened regional stability and American lives.
Operation Just Cause remains a polarizing chapter in U.S. history.
For George H.W. Bush, it was an early test of his presidency, demonstrating his willingness to use military force to protect American interests—a precursor to his leadership during the 1991 Gulf War.
The operation also showcased the U.S. military’s post-Vietnam transformation, leveraging advanced technology and rapid deployment to achieve a swift victory.
In Panama, the invasion left a mixed legacy.
While it ended Noriega’s brutal regime and paved the way for democratic governance, it also deepened mistrust of U.S. interventionism in Latin America.
The handover of the Panama Canal to Panamanian control in 1999, as stipulated by the 1977 treaty, symbolized a shift in U.S.-Panamanian relations, but the scars of 1989 linger in the national memory.
Operation Just Cause stands as a reminder of the complexities of U.S. foreign policy: a decisive military success tempered by ethical questions and long-term consequences.
For better or worse, it reshaped Panama’s trajectory and underscored the United States’ enduring influence in the region.
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